Endocrine disruptors (BPA, phthalates)

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous substances that interfere with hormone synthesis, transport, receptor binding or metabolism; bisphenol A (BPA) and its structural analogues (BPS, BPF) act primarily as agonists or antagonists at oestrogen receptors (ERα, ERβ) and also interact with androgen and thyroid hormone pathways, while phthalates — plasticisers used widely in food packaging, medical devices and personal-care products — reduce androgen biosynthesis by inhibiting steroidogenic enzymes. Epidemiological associations include earlier puberty onset, reduced sperm quality, polycystic ovary syndrome, type 2 diabetes and obesity, though establishing causality in observational data is complicated by ubiquitous co-exposure and the non-monotonic dose-response curves characteristic of many EDCs. The EU has banned BPA from polycarbonate baby bottles (2011) and is progressively restricting it from other food-contact materials under ongoing regulatory action, and applies a group tolerable daily intake for phthalates, but regulatory thresholds remain contested; cumulative mixture risk assessment is not yet standard practice in most jurisdictions.